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  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Exploration and characterization of "Amoebozoa" diversity and investigation of their diversity patterns at regional and global scales
    La diversité mondiale des eucaryotes est dominée par des organismes (principalement) unicellulaires appelés protistes. Parmi eux, les Amoebozoa sont l'un des groupes les plus abondants, diversifiés et caractéristiques du sol, jouant ainsi des rôles importants dans le fonctionnement des écosystèmes. Cependant, leur étude a été entravée par la difficulté de les détecter et le manque de traits morphologiques stables dans la plupart des groupes. Toutefois, certains amibozoaires comme les Hyalospheniformes (Arcellinida) produisent une thèque (c.-à-d. une coquille) caractéristique qui facilite leur identification, et sont donc considérées comme un groupe modèle approprié pour étudier les schémas de répartition de la diversité. Le développement récent du barcoding moléculaire a considérablement aidé pour l’identification taxonomique, tandis que le métabarcoding a permis de révéler la composition des communautés microbiennes sans biais d'observation et de culture. Ces méthodes se sont révélées efficaces pour plusieurs groupes microbiens, mais seulement quelques études ont été conçues pour les Amoebozoa et les protocoles disponibles sont encore assez rares. Les objectifs de ma thèse étaient alors 1) améliorer et développer des méthodes moléculaires pour étudier la diversité et l'écologie des amibozoaires, 2) estimer la diversité taxonomique et fonctionnelle présente dans le sol, 3) améliorer la taxonomie et phylogénie de cette diversité afin d'établir une base solide pour de futures recherches et 4) caractériser les facteurs écologiques susceptibles d'influencer la diversité microbienne à l'échelle locale, continentale et mondiale. Nous avons d'abord identifié un nouveau marqueur moléculaire pour étudier plusieurs groupes d’arcellinides, qui s'est révélé efficace pour discriminer des taxons proches et étudier simultanément les relations phylogénétiques profondes entre des taxons éloignés (chapitre 2). De plus, nous avons également adapté un protocole de métabarcoding pour étudier le genre Nebela avec des amorces COI spécifiques et une résolution taxonomique fine (chapitre 6). Ensuite, nous avons isolé, cultivé et décrit le premier membre d'un clade environnemental d’amibozoaires évolutivement très divergent (chapitre 3). Cette amibe, l'une des plus petites espèces d'amibes décrites, présente un cycle de vie unique avec une alternance de trophozoïtes actifs phagotrophes et de ramifications osmotrophes ressemblant aux champignons. Sa présence a été fréquemment reportée dans de nombreuses études de métabarcoding du sol, mais cet organisme n'avait jamais été caractérisé auparavant. En revanche, les Hyalospheniformes sont connus depuis les travaux d’Ehrenberg au XIXe siècle. Cependant, leur diversité au niveau de l’espèce reste mal caractérisée. Dans le chapitre 4, nous avons montré que l'espèce emblématique d’amibe à thèque, Nebela militaris, n'appartenait pas au genre Nebela, mais constituait une entité distincte dans l'arbre des Hyalospheniformes. Par conséquent, nous avons érigé le nouveau genre Alabasta pour cette espèce (chapitre 4). De plus, nous avons montré que la diversité des Hyalospheniformes avait été largement sous-estimée. En effet, nos résultats morphologiques et moléculaires ont révélé la présence de plusieurs espèces au sein des genres Apodera, Alocodera et Padaungiella. Cette nouvelle diversité a des impacts sur la biogéographie microbienne, car Apodera vas et Alocodera cockayni étaient auparavant considérées comme deux espèces non-cosmopolites avec des aires de répartition géographique très étendues et de grandes tolérances écologiques. Par conséquent, nous avons montré que la situation était beaucoup plus complexe, suggérant l'existence d'endémismes locaux étroits et de spécialistes écologiques, à l'instar des genres Hyalosphenia et Nebela (chapitre 5). Finalement, nous avons exploré la diversité du genre Nebela le long d’un gradient d’élévation (chapitre 6). Nous avons observé une diminution de l’abondance et de la diversité en haute altitude ce qui correspond à un effet typique de « milieu de domaine ». Notre étude a également révélé plusieurs phylotypes inconnus limités à de hautes altitudes qui semblent présenter une exclusion réciproque avec des taxons généralistes présents à des altitudes inférieures. En conclusion, cette thèse met en évidence que des méthodes moléculaires associées à des observations morphologiques robustes sont efficaces pour révéler et décrire la diversité des Amoebozoa. De plus, ces organismes microbiens possèdent des schémas biogéographiques et macro-écologiques similaires aux animaux, plantes et champignons, dès lors que ces groupes sont étudiés au même rang taxonomique, c'est-à-dire au niveau de l'espèce. ABSTRACT The world eukaryotic diversity is dominated by (mostly) single-celled organisms referred to as protists. Among them, the Amoebozoa are one of the most numerous, diverse and characteristic groups in soil, thus playing important roles in ecosystem functioning. However, their study has been impeded by the difficulty in detecting them and the lack of stable morphological traits in most groups. Nevertheless, some amoebozoans such as the Hyalospheniformes (Arcellinida) are characterized by a self-constructed test (i.e. shell) which facilitates their identification, and are then considered as a suitable model group for investigating diversity patterns of repartition. The recent development of DNA barcoding has helped considerably taxonomic identification, whereas metabarcoding has allowed revealing microbial community composition without observational and cultivation biases. These methods have proved efficient for several microbial groups, but only few studies have been designed for Amoebozoa and available protocols are still rather scarce. The aims of my thesis were then to 1) improve and develop molecular methods to study the amoebozoan diversity and ecology, 2) estimate their taxonomic and functional diversity in the soil, 3) improve the taxonomic and phylogenetic frame for this diversity in order to build a sound basis for further research and 4) characterize the ecological drivers which are likely to influence microbial diversity at local, continental and global scales. We first identified a new molecular marker to survey arcellinids taxa, which proved to be efficient for discriminating closely-related taxa and simultaneously investigating deep relationships among distant taxa (Chapter 2). In addition, we also adapted a metabarcoding protocol with specific COI primers to survey the diversity within the genus Nebela at a fine taxonomical resolution (Chapter 6). Then, we isolated, cultivated and described the first member of a deep-branching environmental clade of Amoebozoa (Chapter 3). This amoeba, one of the smallest amoeboid species described, presents a unique life cycle with an alternation of phagotrophic active trophozoites and osmotrophic fungi-like ramifications. Its presence has been pervasively reported in many soil metabarcoding studies, but this organism had never been characterized. By contrast, Hyalospheniformes are known since the works of Ehrenberg in the 19th century. However, their diversity at the species level remains poorly characterized. In chapter 4, we showed that the iconic testate amoeba species Nebela militaris did not belong to genus Nebela but branched as a separate entity in the Hyalospheniformes tree. Therefore, we erected the new genus Alabasta for this species (Chapter 4). In addition, we demonstrated that Hyalospheniformes diversity had been greatly underestimated. Indeed, our morphological and molecular results have revealed the presence for several species within the genera Apodera, Alocodera and Padaungiella. This new diversity has implications on microbial biogeography as Apodera vas and Alocodera cockayni were previously considered as two non-cosmopolite species with very broad geographical ranges and large ecological tolerances. Furthermore, we showed that the situation was far more complex, suggesting the existence of narrow local endemisms and ecological specialists, similarly to genera Hyalosphenia and Nebela (Chapter 5). Finally, we explored the diversity patterns of the genus Nebela along an elevation gradient (Chapter 6). We observed a decrease of abundance and diversity in high elevation corresponding to a typical mid-domain effect. Our study also revealed several unknown phylotypes restricted to the higher elevation that seemed to present competitive exclusion with the generalist taxa from lower elevation. In conclusion, this thesis highlights that molecular methods associated to robust morphological observations are efficient to reveal and describe the diversity of Amoebozoa. Furthermore, these microbial organisms display biogeographical and macroecological patterns similarly to animals, plants and fungi, when all groups are studied at the same taxonomical rank, i.e. species level.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Mycamoeba gemmipara nov. gen., nov. sp., the First Cultured Member of the Environmental Dermamoebidae Clade LKM74 and its Unusual Life Cycle
    Since the first environmental DNA surveys, entire groups of sequences called “environmental clades” did not have any cultured representative. LKM74 is an amoebozoan clade affiliated to Dermamoebidae, whose presence is pervasively reported in soil and freshwater. We obtained an isolate from soil that we assigned to LKM74 by molecular phylogeny, close related to freshwater clones. We described Mycamoeba gemmipara based on observations made with light- and transmission electron microscopy. It is an extremely small amoeba with typical lingulate shape. Unlike other Dermamoebidae, it lacked ornamentation on its cell membrane, and condensed chromatin formed characteristic patterns in the nucleus. M. gemmipara displayed a unique life cycle: trophozoites formed walled coccoid stages which grew through successive buddings and developed into branched structures holding cysts. These structures, measuring hundreds of micrometres, are built as the exclusive product of osmotrophic feeding. In order to demonstrate that M. gemmipara is a genuine soil inhabitant, we screened its presence in an environmental soil DNA diversity survey performed on an experimental setup where pig cadavers were left to decompose in soils in order to follow changes in eukaryotic communities. M. gemmipara was present in all samples, although related reads were uncommon underneath the cadaver.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Soil protistology rebooted: 30 fundamental questions to start with
    Geisen, Stefan
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    Wilkinson, David M
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    Adl, Sina
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    Bonkowski, Michael
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    Brown, Matthew W
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    Fiore-Donno, Anna Maria
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    Jassey, Vincent E.J
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    Krashevska, Valentyna
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    Lahr, Daniel J.G
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    Marcisz, Katarzyna
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    Payne, Richard
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    Anderson, Roger O
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    Charman, Dan J
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    Ekelund, Flemming
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    Griffiths, Bryan S
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    Rønn, Regin
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    Smirnov, Alexey
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    Bass, David
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    Berney, Cédric
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    Blandenier, Quentin
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    Chatzinotas, Antonis
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    Clarholm, Marianne
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    Dunthorn, Micah
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    Feest, Alan
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    Fernández, Leonardo D
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    Foissner, Wilhelm
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    Gentekaki, Eleni
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    Hájek, Michal
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    Helder, Johannes
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    Jousset, Alexandre
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    Koller, Robert
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    Kumar, Santosh
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    La Terza, Antonietta
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    Lamentowicz, Mariusz
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    Mazei, Yuri
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    Santos, Susana S
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    Seppey, Christophe V.W
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    Spiegel, Frederick W
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    Walochnik, Julia
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    Winding, Anne
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    Protists are the most diverse eukaryotes. These microbes are keystone organisms of soil ecosystems and regulate essential processes of soil fertility such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Despite this, protists have received little scientific attention, especially compared to bacteria, fungi and nematodes in soil studies. Recent methodological advances, particularly in molecular biology techniques, have made the study of soil protists more accessible, and have created a resurgence of interest in soil protistology. This ongoing revolution now enables comprehensive investigations of the structure and functioning of soil protist communities, paving the way to a new era in soil biology. Instead of providing an exhaustive review, we provide a synthesis of research gaps that should be prioritized in future studies of soil protistology to guide this rapidly developing research area. Based on a synthesis of expert opinion we propose 30 key questions covering a broad range of topics including evolution, phylogenetics, functional ecology, macroecology, paleoecology, and methodologies. These questions highlight a diversity of topics that will establish soil protistology as a hub discipline connecting different fundamental and applied fields such as ecology, biogeography, evolution, plant-microbe interactions, agronomy, and conservation biology. We are convinced that soil protistology has the potential to be one of the most exciting frontiers in biology.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Dispersal limitations and historical factors determine the biogeography of specialized terrestrial protists
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    Payne, Richard J
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    Duckert, Clément
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    Fernández, Leonardo D
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    Hernández, Cristián E
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    Granath, Gustaf
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    Rydin, Håkan
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    Bragazza, Luca
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    Koronatova, Natalia G
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    Goia, Irina
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    Harris, Lorna I
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    Kajukało, Katarzyna
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    Lamentowicz, Mariusz
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    Kosykh, Natalia P
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    Vellak, Kai
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    Recent studies show that soil eukaryotic diversity is immense and dominated by micro‐organisms. However, it is unclear to what extent the processes that shape the distribution of diversity in plants and animals also apply to micro‐organisms. Major diversification events in multicellular organisms have often been attributed to long‐term climatic and geological processes, but the impact of such processes on protist diversity has received much less attention as their distribution has often been believed to be largely cosmopolitan. Here, we quantified phylogeographical patterns in Hyalosphenia papilio, a large testate amoeba restricted to Holarctic Sphagnum‐dominated peatlands, to test if the current distribution of its genetic diversity can be explained by historical factors or by the current distribution of suitable habitats. Phylogenetic diversity was higher in Western North America, corresponding to the inferred geographical origin of the H. papilio complex, and was lower in Eurasia despite extensive suitable habitats. These results suggest that patterns of phylogenetic diversity and distribution can be explained by the history of Holarctic Sphagnum peatland range expansions and contractions in response to Quaternary glaciations that promoted cladogenetic range evolution, rather than the contemporary distribution of suitable habitats. Species distributions were positively correlated with climatic niche breadth, suggesting that climatic tolerance is key to dispersal ability in H. papilio. This implies that, at least for large and specialized terrestrial micro‐organisms, propagule dispersal is slow enough that historical processes may contribute to their diversification and phylogeographical patterns and may partly explain their very high overall diversity.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Mycamoeba gemmipara nov. gen., nov. sp., the First Cultured Member of the Environmental Dermamoebidae Clade LKM74 and its Unusual Life Cycle
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    Seppey, Christophe V. W
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    Simon, Anaële
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    Duckert, Clément
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    Since the first environmental DNA surveys, entire groups of sequences called “environmental clades” did not have any cultured representative. LKM74 is an amoebozoan clade affiliated to Dermamoebidae, whose presence is pervasively reported in soil and freshwater. We obtained an isolate from soil that we assigned to LKM74 by molecular phylogeny, close related to freshwater clones. We described Mycamoeba gemmipara based on observations made with light- and transmission electron microscopy. It is an extremely small amoeba with typical lingulate shape. Unlike other Dermamoebidae, it lacked ornamentation on its cell membrane, and condensed chromatin formed characteristic patterns in the nucleus. M. gemmipara displayed a unique life cycle: trophozoites formed walled coccoid stages which grew through successive buddings and developed into branched structures holding cysts. These structures, measuring hundreds of micrometres, are built as the exclusive product of osmotrophic feeding. To demonstrate that M. gemmipara is a genuine soil inhabitant, we screened its presence in an environmental soil DNA diversity survey performed on an experimental setup where pig cadavers were left to decompose in soils to follow changes in eukaryotic communities. Mycamoeba gemmipara was present in all samples, although related reads were uncommon underneath the cadaver.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    NAD9/NAD7 (mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase gene): A new “Holy Grail” phylogenetic and DNA-barcoding marker for Arcellinida (Amoebozoa)?
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    Alcantara, Daniel M.C
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    Siemensma, Ferry J
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    Todorov, Milcho
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    Lahr, Daniel J.G
    Molecular phylogeny is an indispensable tool for assessing evolutionary relationships among protists. The most commonly used marker is the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene, a conserved gene present in many copies in the nuclear genomes. However, this marker is not variable enough at a fine-level taxonomic scale, and intra-genomic polymorphism has already been reported. Finding a marker that could be useful at both deep and fine taxonomic resolution levels seemed like a utopic dream. We designed Amoebozoa-specific primers to amplify a region including partial sequences of two subunits of the mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase gene (NAD9/NAD7). We applied them to arcellinids belonging to distantly related genera (Arcella, Difflugia, Netzelia and Hyalosphenia) and to Arcellinid-rich environmental samples to obtain additional Amoebozoa sequences. Tree topology was congruent with previous phylogenies, all nodes being highly supported, suggesting that this marker is well-suited for deep phylogenies in Arcellinida and perhaps Amoebozoa. Furthermore, it enabled discrimination of close-related taxa. This short genetic marker (ca. 250 bp) can therefore be used at different taxonomic levels, due to a fast-varying intergenic region presenting either a small intergenic sequence or an overlap, depending on the species.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    En garde! Redefinition of Nebela militaris (Arcellinida, Hyalospheniidae) and erection of Alabasta gen. nov.
    Molecular data have considerably contributed to building the taxonomy of protists. Recently, the systematics of Hyalospheniidae (Amoebozoa; Tubulinea; Arcellinida) has been widely revised, with implications extending to ecological, biogeographical and evolutionary investigations. Certain taxa, however, still have an uncertain phylogenetic position, including the common and conspicuous species Nebela militaris. A phylogenetic reconstruction of the Hyalospheniidae using partial sequences of the mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit 1 (COI) gene shows that N. militaris does not belong to genus Nebela, but should be placed in its own genus. The morphological singularities (strongly curved pseudostome and a marked notch in lateral view) and phylogenetic placement of our isolates motivated the creation of a new genus: Alabasta gen. nov. Based on their morphology, we include in this genus Nebela kivuense and Nebela longicollis. We discuss the position of genus Alabasta within Hyalospheniidae, and the species that could integrate this new genus based on their morphological characteristics.