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  • Publication
    Accès libre
    From learning about social categories to holding stereotypes. Investigating the acquisition of stereotypes in childhood and their effects on adults’ information processing
    (2023-07-20)
    Mari, Magali 
    ;
    Clément, Fabrice 
    Assuming that boys are better at math than girls, expecting that Swiss people love to eat chocolate, or inferring that senior citizens are not at ease with new technologies, all reflect stereotypical expectations about specific social categories. The term “stereotype” refers to shared sets of expectancies about the likely personality, behaviors, preferences, or physical features of social category members. From a cognitive perspective, stereotypes are energy saving devices – mental shortcuts – that allow perceivers to spare processing costs when navigating their complex social environment. Yet, inferring people’s preferences, behaviors, or personality from their category membership can also lead to incorrect predictions, to offensive assumptions, or even to discriminatory behaviors. The present dissertation aims to shed light on the mechanisms by which we form expectations about social categories, and how these expectations impact information processing. Specifically, the first part of this dissertation provides a developmental perspective on how children learn about social categories. It specifically examines how children learn to make inferences about social categories, and the conditions under which children start attributing properties to social category members. The second part of this dissertation turns to the resulting stereotypes that adults hold about social categories, and how these stereotypes modulate information processing. This part focuses on the mental processes that underlie stereotyping and assesses how the processing of written texts is affected by items that confirm versus contradict stereotypical expectations. Together, this dissertation provides a cognitive and developmental perspective on the acquisition of stereotypes and their later effects on information processing. In doing so, this dissertation will hopefully bring a better comprehension of the foundational cognitive processes that underlie stereotyping and its consequences.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Why is she scratching her head? Children’s understanding of others’ metacognitive gestures as an indicator of learning
    (2023-06)
    Mari, Magali 
    ;
    Nike Tsalas
    ;
    Markus Paulus
    Successful collaborative learning is supported by the coordination of one’s own learning with the learning performance of others. One type of cues that guides the understanding of others’ learning performances is their metacognitive gestures. In the current study, we investigated (a) whether 3- to 7-year-old children rely on others’ gestures to judge someone else’s learning progress and likely learning performance (Experiment 1; N = 76), (b) whether metacognitive gesture understanding depends on cognitive and theory of mind skills (Experiment 2; N = 59), and (c) whether this knowledge would influence children’s future selective learning and selective teaching choices (Experiment 3; N = 96). Results of Experiment 1 showed that by 3 years of age children can interpret gestures as an indicator of a person’s future performance and that this capacity improves with age, with older children differentiating better between the types of gestures. Experiment 2 revealed that the understanding of metacognitive gestures was not modulated by either nonverbal cognitive capacities or theory of mind skills. Experiment 3 showed a developmental difference in that 5- and 7-year-olds, like adults, consistently selected that successful learners should help someone to learn and that ineffective learners should receive help, whereas 3-year-olds selected learners at chance level. Overall, the results support views that children acquire an understanding of metacognitive gestures early in life and that the translation of this knowledge into selective teaching and selective learning choices improves with age.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Social cognition and Relevance: How stereotypes impact the processing of definite and indefinite descriptions
    (2023-03)
    Mari, Magali 
    ;
    Müller, Misha 
    This paper focuses on the impact of social cognition on thes processing of linguistic information. More specifically, it brings some insights to Relevance theory's construal of MeaningNN, which seeks to account for non-propositional meanings. It shows, through two experiments, how gender and nationality-related stereotypes guide the processing of definite and indefinite descriptions. Experiment 1 consists of a self-paced reading task (with 59 French native speakers), introducing information confirming vs. violating gender stereotypes within a nominal phrase (NP). The NP (e.g., “chirurgien/chirurgienne”, “surgeonmale/female”) was itself introduced either by a definite article (presupposition) or an indefinite article (assertion). Results showed that information violating gender stereotypes was costlier to process than stereotype-congruent information. Moreover, when information violated gender stereotypes, definite descriptions became significantly costlier than indefinite ones, because they required the identification of a salient referent which contradicted stereotypical expectations. Experiment 2 tested the effects of definite vs. indefinite NP on processing nationality-related stereotypes in a self-paced reading task (with 49 French native speakers). Participants read definite vs. indefinite NPs referring to representatives of a country. The NP was subsequently paired with information that confirmed vs. contradicted nationality stereotypes. Results showed that information contradicting nationality stereotypes were significantly costlier to process than information confirming stereotypes. Furthermore, when information contradicted nationality stereotypes, indefinite descriptions (which promote a single occurrence reading) failed to facilitate information processing compared to definite descriptions (which promote a generalized representation of the social category). Overall, the present findings are consistent with research on stereotypes, in that they show that stereotype-incongruent information affect sentence processing. Importantly, while Experiment 1 revealed that stereotypes affected the processing of linguistic markers, Experiment 2 suggested that linguistic markers could not modulate the processing of stereotypes.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    How cues to social categorization impact children's inferences about social categories
    (2022-09)
    Mari, Magali 
    Social categorization involves two crucial processes: First, children seek properties on which they can categorize individuals, i.e., they learn to form social categories; then children make inferences based on social category membership and might develop affective responses toward social categories. Over the last decade, a growing number of research in developmental psychology started to use novel social categories to investigate how children learn and reason about social categories. To date, three types of cues have been put forward as means to form social categories, namely linguistic, visual, and behavioral cues. Based on social category membership, children draw inferences about the shared properties of social category members and about how social category members ought to behave and interact with each other. With additional input, children might apply essentialist beliefs to social categories and develop affective responses toward social categories. This article aims to provide key insights on the development of stereotypes and intergroup biases by reviewing recent works that investigated how children learn to form novel social categories and the kind of inferences they make about these novel social categories.
  • Publication
    Accès libre
    Definite Descriptions in the Light of the Comprehension vs. Acceptance Distinction: Comparing Self-Paced Reading with Eye-Tracking Measures
    (2021)
    Müller, Misha 
    ;
    Mari, Magali 
    This paper presents two experiments on the processing of informative definite descriptions in plausible vs. implausible contexts. Experiment 1 is a self-paced reading task (with French native speakers,n= 69), with sentences containing a definite vs.indefinite NP, each preceded byplausibleorimplausiblecontexts. Our study replicated Singh and colleagues’ findings, namely that definite descriptions are significantly costlier when they occur inimplausiblecontexts. The translation of the original stimuli from English to French did not affect the results, suggesting that the phenomenon applies cross-linguistically. Experiment 2 consists in an eye-tracking task, designed to measure the participants’ (n= 44) gaze patterns on complete sentences with the same four conditions (definite vs.indefinite NP; implausible vs. implausible contexts). A mixed effect model analysis revealed that (a) thetotal gaze durationon target segments and (b) theprocessing of the complete sentencewere significantly longer in implausible conditions. These results show that implausible contexts predict a marked increase in the offline processing costs of definite descriptions. However, no significant difference was found for online processing measures (i.e.,first fixation duration, first-pass reading timeandregression path timemeasures) across all experimental conditions. These results suggest that it is only once the sentence is fully processed that implausible contexts increase processing costs. Furthermore, these results raise methodological issues related to the study of the online processing of definite descriptions, to the extent that self-paced reading and eye-tracking methods in the present study lead to incompatible results. With respect to the eye-tracking results, we suggest that the contrast between online and offline processing is likely to reflect the fact that participants first adopt a stance of trust to understand utterances before filtering the information through their epistemic vigilance module.