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Guerin, Patrick
RĆ©sultat de la recherche
Respiratory physiology and anthropophilic behavioural traits of the main malaria vector "Anopheles gambiae" Giles (Diptera: Culicidae)
2018, Frei, JƩrƓme, Guerin, Patrick
La vie adulte des moustiques est marquĆ©e par la rĆ©pĆ©tition de sĆ©quences comportementales incluant: la recherche dāun partenaire sexuel, la recherche de ressources (repas sanguin sur un hĆ“te ou sucre dāorigine vĆ©gĆ©tale) et la recherche dāun site de ponte ; ces sĆ©quences comportementales Ć©tant intercalĆ©es de pĆ©riodes plus ou moins longues de repos. Lāentreprise de lāun ou lāautre de ces comportements typiques est influencĆ©e par des facteurs aussi bien internes (comme par exemple le bagage gĆ©nĆ©tique ou lāĆ©tat physiologique) quāexternes (comme les conditions environnementales ou les signaux Ć©mis par lāhĆ“te). Dans ce contexte, le principal vecteur de la malaria, Anopheles gambiae Giles (An. gambiae), se distingue dāautres moustiques en plusieurs points : il commence sa vie adulte avec peu de rĆ©serves mĆ©taboliques, il concentre ses repas sanguins et doit souvent mĆŖme les multiplier, afin de pouvoir pondre. Ce moustique est endophage, endophile et dĆ©montre un comportement anthropophile (prĆ©fĆ©rence Ć piquer des ĆŖtres humains Ć par rapport Ć dāautres vertĆ©brĆ©s) dictĆ© principalement par la signature olfactive de lāhomme. Dans cette thĆØse, je me suis donc intĆ©ressĆ© Ć la physiologie respiratoire et Ć lāidentification de signaux chimiques potentiels typiques Ć lāhomme qui rĆ©gulent la vie adulte de ce moustique.
Comprendre comment ce moustique Ć©change les gaz respiratoires avec son environnement ou quel schĆ©ma respiratoire (SR) il utilise est fondamental, car on en sait trĆØs peu sur la physiologie respiratoire des insectes de petite taille. En tant que petit ectotherme et sachant que ce moustique est particuliĆØrement dĆ©pendant de lāhĆ©matophagie pour rĆ©pondre Ć ses besoins mĆ©taboliques de base, une meilleure comprĆ©hension des variations de son SR en fonction de sa taille et de la tempĆ©rature est Ć©galement importante. Pour ce faire, un systĆØme de respiromĆ©trie Ć flux continu a Ć©tĆ© poussĆ© vers ses limites en termes de prĆ©cision et de rĆ©solution temporelle, afin de rĆ©soudre le SR utilisĆ© par An. gambiae. Au repos, le SR de An. gambiae est caractĆ©risĆ© par la rĆ©pĆ©tition cyclique dāĆ©vĆ©nements excrĆ©toires de CO2 marquĆ©s, suivis de pĆ©riodes dāĆ©mission plus basses. Les composantes sous-jacentes constituant le SR ont pu ĆŖtre identifiĆ©es et quantifiĆ©es. Ces derniĆØres incluent : le taux mĆ©tabolique au repos reprĆ©sente par le taux de production standard de CO2 au repos (sVĢCO2), la durĆ©e (Pint) et le taux dāĆ©mission de CO2 (iVĢCO2) entre les Ć©vĆ©nements excrĆ©toires de CO2 marquĆ©s, ainsi que la frĆ©quence (F), le volume (Vb), lāamplitude (A) et la durĆ©e (Pb) de ces derniers. Sur lāintervalle de taille et de tempĆ©rature expĆ©rimentĆ©s, sVĢCO2 varie dāun facteur de 10 (20 Ć 32Ā°C, 0.9 Ć 2.3 mg, 0.6 Ć 6 Ī¼l CO2/heure). Une analyse par rĆ©gressions multiples dĆ©montre une relation positive et isomĆ©trique de sVĢCO2 avec la taille et un Q10 apparent de 2.13 (pour une augmentation de 10Ā°C, sVĢCO2 est plus que doublĆ©). Sachant quāun taux mĆ©tabolique plus Ć©levĆ© imposĆ© par lāenvironnement pourrait provoquer une recherche de ressources nutritionnelles accrue, voire un contact plus frĆ©quent avec lāhĆ“te, cette relation est un fondement important pour toute tentative de modĆ©lisation bottom-up des maladies transmises par les moustiques. La comparaison entre deux groupes dāĆ¢ges distincts dĆ©montre un sVĢCO2 plus bas et mieux maĆ®trisĆ© chez les An. gambiae plus Ć¢gĆ©s (6 jours), suggĆ©rant ainsi un Ć¢ge optimal pour le contrĆ“le du mĆ©tabolisme. Les individus prĆ©sentant un sVĢCO2 particuliĆØrement bas, en plus de respirer de maniĆØre cyclique, respirent aussi de maniĆØre discontinue (Ć©changes de gaz proche de 0 durant la pĆ©riode de basse Ć©mission). En activitĆ©, An. gambiae utilise un SR continu. Il est conclu que ce petit insecte est capable dāutiliser les 3 SR dĆ©crits Ć ce jour dans la littĆ©rature chez les insectes (SR continu, cyclique et cyclique/discontinu). Lors dāune augmentation de tempĆ©rature, il est dĆ©montrĆ© que F module fortement le taux dāĆ©changes gazeux en augmentant plus vite que le taux mĆ©tabolique au repos. Ce dĆ©couplage est compensĆ© par une diminution de Vb, suggĆ©rant ainsi une diminution de la capacitĆ© tampon pour le CO2 dans lāhĆ©molymphe lorsque la tempĆ©rature augmente. F varie indĆ©pendamment de la masse corporelle, alors que Vb augmente de maniĆØre disproportionnĆ©e avec cette derniĆØre, suggĆ©rant ainsi un volume trachĆ©al relativement plus Ć©levĆ© chez les individus de plus grande taille. Si lāon tient compte de leur taille et de la variĆ©tĆ© de comportements que les moustiques sont capables dāentreprendre durant leur vie adulte, il est suggĆ©rĆ© que la capacitĆ© dāutiliser divers SR peut ĆŖtre un avantage, afin dāadapter le schĆ©ma respiratoire Ć la demande mĆ©tabolique imposĆ©e selon les circonstances rencontrĆ©es durant la vie adulte.
An. gambiae, en plus dāĆŖtre anthropophile, montre mĆŖme une prĆ©fĆ©rence pour certains types dāhumains. Il est connu que le mĆ©canisme derriĆØre ce comportement sĆ©lectif est mĆ©diĆ© par lāodeur Ć©mise par lāhĆ“te. La seconde partie de cette thĆØse sāest donc concentrĆ©e sur lāidentification de signaux chimiques Ć©mis par lāhĆ“te potentiellement impliquĆ©s dans ce comportement sĆ©lectif. Pour ce faire, un paradigme expĆ©rimental intĆ©grant une bonne Ć©valuation du comportement dans des conditions expĆ©rimentales optimales a Ć©tĆ© dĆ©veloppĆ© et utilisĆ©. Ce dernier comprend : i) une population test de moustiques adultes spĆ©cialement Ć©levĆ©e et prĆŖte Ć rechercher un hĆ“te, ii) un olfactomĆØtre amĆ©liorĆ© Ć deux ports permettant de mesurer lāintensitĆ© de la rĆ©ponse chimioanĆ©motaxique du moustique et sa capacitĆ© discriminative en redirigeant son vol vers lāune des deux odeurs sources prĆ©sentĆ©es, iii) la prĆ©sence inhĆ©rente de fluctuations de CO2 contrĆ“lĆ©es afin de simuler la prĆ©sence de deux hĆ“tes potentiels et augmenter la sensitivitĆ© des moustiques et iv) des conditions de vol optimales (tempĆ©rature, humiditĆ© et vitesse du vent).
Les fluctuations de CO2 ont pu ĆŖtre mesurĆ©es et reproduites de maniĆØre consistante dans les deux ports de lāolfactomĆØtre. Cette stimulation a augmentĆ© la rĆ©ceptivitĆ© des moustiques Ć rĆ©pondre Ć des odeurs. Des expĆ©riences conduites avec lāajout dāacide lactique (une signature olfactive humaine dāorigine eccrine) dans un des ports de lāolfactomĆØtre confirment que ce compose volatile nāintensifie pas la rĆ©ponse chimioanĆ©motaxique de An. gambiae mais influence son comportement discriminant. AprĆØs avoir validĆ© le paradigme expĆ©rimental avec lāacide lactique, ce dernier a Ć©tĆ© utilise pour Ć©valuer la rĆ©ponse du vecteur Ć des odeurs provenant de lāincubation de sueur mĆ¢le et femelle avec 3 espĆØces de bactĆ©ries peuplant lāaisselle humaine. Staphylococcus epidermidis a Ć©tĆ© choisi car il produit une odeur moins intense, alors que Corynebacterium jeikeium et Staphylococcus haemolyticus ont Ć©tĆ© choisi pour leurs contributions biologiques importantes dans la production dāune odeur axillaire intense. Ces deux derniĆØres bactĆ©ries, par le biais dāune activitĆ© enzymatique spĆ©cifique et prononcĆ©e, libĆØrent respectivement des acides carboxyliques dont notamment le (R)/(S)-3-hydroxy-3-methylhexanoique acide (HMHA) et des composĆ©s volatiles soufrĆ©s tel que le (R)/(S)-3-methyl-3-sulfanylhexane-1-ol (MSH). Les expĆ©riences avec lāolfactomĆØtre dĆ©montrent que les trois bactĆ©ries, de par leur action sur la sueur mĆ¢le ou femelle, libĆØrent des composĆ©s volatiles influenƧant le comportement aussi bien chimioanĆ©motaxique que discriminant de An. gambiae. Si le vecteur nāa pas pu distinguer la sueur mĆ¢le de la sueur femelle stĆ©rile, lāaction de chaque bactĆ©rie a rendu la sueur mĆ¢le plus attractive de maniĆØre consistante. Lāaction de Corynebacterium jeikeium a gĆ©nĆ©rĆ© la rĆ©ponse chimionanĆ©motaxique la plus intense et a engendrĆ© la prĆ©fĆ©rence la plus forte pour la sueur mĆ¢le. Les composĆ©s volatiles HMHA et MSH sont suspectĆ©s dāĆŖtre propres Ć lāodeur humaine mais aucun des deux composĆ©s volatiles nāa gĆ©nĆ©rĆ© de prĆ©fĆ©rence telle que celle observĆ©e pour lāacide lactique. Il nāest cependant pas exclu que ces deux signaux chimiques influencent le comportement du moustique au moment oĆ¹ il approche lāhĆ“te ou encore engendre une activation suivie dāun vol soutenu en direction de lāhĆ“te Ć des distances plus Ć©loignĆ©es., Anopheles gambiae Giles (An. gambiae) is the main vector of malaria. To fulfil metabolic demand An. gambiae is particularly dependent on blood feeding which is an important driving force of its strong vectorial capacity. It is therefore important to better understand how its metabolism scales with body size and, as an ectotherm, evaluate the thermal sensitivity of its metabolism. Meanwhile, understanding how respiratory gases are exchanged, which gas exchange pattern (GEP) is employed by An. gambiae is also of broader importance as little is known about the respiratory physiology of smaller insects. For this purpose a flow-through respirometer system was pushed to its limit in terms of both its precision and temporal resolution in order to fully resolve the GEP of resting female An. gambiae. The underlying components constituting the GEP could be identified and quantified, including: the standard CO2 production rate of resting An. gambiae (sVĢCO2) as a proxy for resting metabolic rate, the inter-burst CO2 emission rate (iVĢCO2) and duration (Pint), and CO2 burst frequency (F), duration (Pb), amplitude (A) and volume (Vb). Over the temperatures and body size ranges tested, sVĢCO2 varied over a 10-fold range (20 to 32Ā°C, 0.9 to 2.3 mg, 0.6 to 6 Ī¼l CO2/hour). Multiple regression analysis demonstrates a positive and almost isometric scaling with living body mass and an apparent Q10 of 2.13, i.e. for a 10Ā°C increment sVĢCO2 is more than doubled. Comparison of two age groups reveals lower and more controlled sVĢCO2 by older (6 days) An. gambiae, suggesting the existence of an optimum age for metabolic control. Considering that a higher metabolic demand imposed by the environment may enhance foraging and contact to hosts, these relationships provide an important foundation for bottomup modelling for diseases transmitted by mosquitoes.
At rest, the GEP of An. gambiae can be characterised by the cyclic repetition of CO2 bursts intercalated with inter-burst periods with a lower CO2 emission rate. Individuals presenting particularly low sVĢCO2 values exchange respiratory gases not only cyclically but also discontinuously (gas exchange is negligible during inter-burst periods). Disturbed An. gambiae presented a continuous GEP. It is concluded that An. gambiae uses all three GEPs described so far in the literature. With increasing temperature it is shown that F strongly modulates the gas exchange rate by increasing faster than sVĢCO2. This discrepancy is almost compensated by lower Vb values at higher temperature suggesting a decrease in the haemolymph buffering capacity for CO2 with increasing temperature. F is independent of body mass whereas Vb scales out of proportion with body size suggesting a relatively larger tracheal volume in bigger mosquitoes. Considering mosquito size and the wide panel of behaviours undertaken during adult life, it is suggested that the ability to employ various GEPs and modulating its components might be an advantage to adapt the respiratory gas exchange pattern used (discontinuous and cyclic to only cyclic and eventually to continuous) to metabolic demand depending on the situation encountered in adult life.
Another major contributor to the vectorial capacity of An. gambiae is its odour-mediated preference to bite humans over other vertebrate host and certain human types over others. The second part of the thesis focuses on the identification of potential infochemicals that may explain this odour-mediated anthropophilic and discriminative host seeking behaviour of An. gambiae. For this purpose an experimental paradigm integrating both a sound behavioural evaluation concepts and an appropriate testing environment is used. An improved dual-choice olfactometer that tests the host seeking behaviour of An. gambiae in the presence of continuous well-controlled intermittent CO2 stimulation is presented in both arm is developed. This background stimulation simulates the presence of two potential hosts whilst acting as a releaser of odour perception. Olfactometer tests with lactic acid, a human eccrine signature, added on one arm in the presence of CO2 pulses as sensitizer, confirm earlier findings that this infochemical not necessarily augments anemochemotactic upwind flight of the insect vector but influences the mosquitoās discriminative behaviour. After confirming the validity of the experimental paradigm it is used to evaluate the responses of An. gambiae to odours from human male and female axillary sweat incubated with 3 human axilla bacteria species. Staphylococcus epidermidis was selected for its low odour-producing pattern, Corynebacterium jeikeium for its strong NĪ±-acylglutamine aminoacylase activity liberating carboxylic acids including (R)/(S)-3-hydroxy-3-methylhexanoic acid (HMHA), and Staphylococcus haemolyticus for its capacity to liberate sulfur-containing compounds including (R)/(S)-3-methyl-3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol (MSH). It is demonstrated that An. gambiae is able to discriminate for the olfactometer arm conveying odour generated by incubating any of the three bacteria species with either male or female sweat. Whereas An. gambiae cannot discriminate between male and female sterile sweat samples in the olfactometer, the mosquito consistently shows a preference for male sweat over female sweat incubated with the same bacterium, independent of the species used as inoculum. Axillary sweat incubated with C. jeikeium rendered An. gambiae particularly responsive and this substrate elicited the strongest preference for male over female sweat. HMHA and MSH are suspected to be unique to human odour. It is shown that when tested on their own, neither HMHA nor MSH elicited a clear discriminating response but may affect human host approach by An. gambiae or enhance activation followed by sustained upwind flight over longer distances.
Standardising Visual Control Devices for Tsetse Flies: Central and West African Species Glossina palpalis palpalis
2014-1, Kaba, Dramane, Zacarie, Tusevo, Makumyaviri MāPondi, Alexis, Njiokou, Flobert, Bosson-Vanga, Henriette, Kroeber, Thomas, McMullin, Andrew, Mihok, Steve, Guerin, Patrick
Background: Glossina palpalis palpalis (G. p. palpalis) is one of the principal vectors of sleeping sickness and nagana in Africa with a geographical range stretching from Liberia in West Africa to Angola in Central Africa. It inhabits tropical rain forest but has also adapted to urban settlements. We set out to standardize a long-lasting, practical and cost-effective visually attractive device that would induce the strongest landing response by G. p. palpalis for future use as an insecticideimpregnated tool in area-wide population suppression of this fly across its range. Methodology/Principal Findings: Trials were conducted in wet and dry seasons in the Ivory Coast, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola to measure the performance of traps (biconical, monoconical and pyramidal) and targets of different sizes and colours, with and without chemical baits, at different population densities and under different environmental conditions. Adhesive film was used as a practical enumerator at these remote locations to compare landing efficiencies of devices. Independent of season and country, both phthalogen blue-black and blue-black-blue 1 m2 targets covered with adhesive film proved to be as good as traps in phthalogen blue or turquoise blue for capturing G. p. palpalis. Trap efficiency varied (8ā51%). There was no difference between the performance of blue-black and blue-blackblue 1 m2 targets. Baiting with chemicals augmented the overall performance of targets relative to traps. Landings on smaller phthalogen blue-black 0.25 m2 square targets were not significantly different from either 1 m2 blue-black-blue or blue-black square targets. Three times more flies were captured per unit area on the smaller device. Conclusions/Significance: Blue-black 0.25 m2 cloth targets show promise as simple cost effective devices for management of G. p. palpalis as they can be used for both control when impregnated with insecticide and for population sampling when covered with adhesive film.
The behaviour of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera, Glossinidae):: from host seeking to biting
2013, Chappuis, Charles, Guerin, Patrick
Les tsĆ©-tsĆ© sont les principaux vecteurs des trypanosomes africains qui causent la maladie du sommeil chez lāhumain et le nagana chez les bovins. Ces maladies reprĆ©sentent un lourd fardeau en ce qui concerne la santĆ© et la prospĆ©ritĆ© humaine. Une faƧon de lutter contre ces trypanosomes est de sāattaquer au vecteur en contrĆ“lant sa population Ć lāaide de piĆØges qui le trompent par des moyens visuels et olfactifs. Par consĆ©quent, une meilleure comprĆ©hension de la maniĆØre dont une mouche tsĆ©-tsĆ© utilise les indices olfactifs et visuels laissĆ©s par lāhĆ“te peut aider Ć dĆ©velopper des mĆ©thodes de captures plus efficaces encore. Et cāest dans ce contexte que nous avons Ć©tudiĆ© les phases critiques du comportement de recherche dāhĆ“te de G. pallidipes, telles que lāactivation, lāanĆ©motaxie optomotrice, lāapproche dāune stimulation visuelle forte, la recherche locale autour dāelle, lāatterrissage et finalement, la piqĆ»re.
Nous nous sommes intĆ©ressĆ©s plus particuliĆØrement Ć savoir comment lāhaleine intervient dans le comportement de G. pallidipes. En effet, lāhaleine est un mĆ©lange complexe de plus de 200 composĆ©s organiques volatiles (COV) qui proviennent en partie des Ć©changes dans les poumons entre lāair inspirĆ© et le sang. En quantifiant des phases comportementales aussi critiques que lāactivation, lāanĆ©motaxie optomotrice, la recherche locale autour dāune stimulation visuelle forte, nous montrons comment G. pallidipes rĆ©pond Ć lāhaleine dans une chambre de vol. De plus, nous dĆ©montrons que le CO2, une molĆ©cule constituante de lāhaleine et connue pour attirer les mouches tsĆ©-tsĆ© ainsi que dāautres insectes haematophages, nāest pas entiĆØrement responsable des rĆ©ponses comportementales obtenues avec lāhaleine. En effet, cāest la combinaison du CO2 avec les COVs de lāhaleine qui induit le comportement de recherche dāhĆ“te chez les tsĆ©-tsĆ©. Nos enregistrements dāĆ©lectroantennogramme (EAG) et nos donnĆ©es comportementales rĆ©vĆØlent que les constituants de lāhaleine tels que lāacĆ©tone, les alcanes de C5-C10, lāisoprĆØne et le geranylacĆ©tone, jouent un rĆ“le dans le comportement de recherche de lāhĆ“te chez G. pallidipes.
Nous dĆ©montrons en chambre de vol quāune barre noire coiffĆ©e dāune sphĆØre bleue est un stimulus dĆ©clenchant lāatterrissage chez G. pallidipes. De plus, le comportement dāatterrissage peut ĆŖtre modulĆ© en changeant la taille de la barre et la taille ou la forme de lāobjet qui coiffe la barre.
Finalement, nous dĆ©montrons que le systĆØme de refroidissement des mammifĆØres induit la piqĆ»re chez les tsĆ©-tsĆ©. En effet, lāhumiditĆ© et la chaleur agissent dāune faƧon synergique pour induire la piqĆ»re et influencent le temps de latence, la persistance Ć piquer et la dynamique dāun comportement aussi essentiel que la piqĆ»re. En plus, nous avons pour la premiĆØre fois identifiĆ© chez les tsĆ©-tsĆ© des neurones dĆ©montrant des propriĆ©tĆ©s hygrorĆ©ceptives dans les sensilles basiconiques des palpes maxillaires., Tsetse flies are major vectors of African trypanosomes causing sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. These diseases are substantial burdens on human health and prosperity. One way to break the trypanosomes life-cycle is the control of tsetse populations using visual odour-baited trapping devices. A better understanding of how tsetse use visual and chemical cues to locate hosts could help to design even more efficient trapping devices. It is in this context that critical host seeking behaviours of G. pallidipes were investigated in a wind tunnel. These behaviours include fly activation, optomotor anemotaxis, approach flights to a visual target, local search flights around a visual stimulus, landing responses of the fly and its biting response.
I was interested in how a host odour emanation such as human breath intervenes in the host-seeking behaviour of G. pallidipes. Breath is a complex blend of more than 200 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) originating in part, from the exchange between air and blood in lungs. Quantifying critical behaviours such as activation, optomotor anemotaxis and local search flights around a blue sphere with a 3D tracking system in a wind tunnel allows us to understand how G. pallidipes responds to breath as an olfactory stimulus. Furthermore, I demonstrate how CO2, a constituent of breath known to attract tsetse and other blood-sucking insects, is not responsible on its own for the behavioural responses recorded for G. pallidipes to breath in the wind tunnel. In fact, CO2 combines with VOCs present in breath to elicit host-seeking behaviours in tsetse. Electroantennogram (EAG) recordings and the wind tunnel behavioural experiments reveal that breath constituents such as acetone, C5-C10 alkanes, isoprene and geranylacetone play a role in the host-seeking behaviour of G. pallidipes.
I demonstrate in the wind tunnel that an object such as a black column supporting a blue sphere can serve as a landing stimulus for G. pallidipes and that the flyās landing behaviour can be modulated by changing the width of the column and the size or shape of the object it supports.
The manner in which tsetse exploit the cooling system of mammals to elicit their biting response was studied in a specially designed experimental set up. In this manner it could be demonstrated that simultaneous increases in the humidity and temperature of air act synergistically to induce biting in G. pallidipes. These combined physical stimuli influence the biting response latency, biting persistence and the dynamics of this fundamental behaviour. In addition, I report on neurones with hygroreceptive properties present in wall-pore sensilla on the maxillary palps of G. pallidipes that are probably implicated in biting behaviours.
Small Cages with Insect Couples Provide a Simple Method for a Preliminary Assessment of Mating Disruption
2012, Briand, FranƧoise, Guerin, Patrick, Charmillot, Pierre-Joseph, Kehrli, Patrik
Mating disruption by sex pheromones is a sustainable, effective and widely used pest management scheme. A drawback of this technique is its challenging assessment of effectiveness in the field (e.g., spatial scale, pest density). The aim of this work was to facilitate the evaluation of field-deployed pheromone dispensers. We tested the suitability of small insect field cages for a pre-evaluation of the impact of sex pheromones on mating using the grape moths Eupoecilia ambiguella and Lobesia botrana, two major pests in vineyards. Cages consisted of a cubic metal frame of 35ācm sides, which was covered with a mosquito net of 1500āĪ¼m mesh size. Cages were installed in the centre of pheromone-treated and untreated vineyards. In several trials, 1 to 20 couples of grape moths per cage were released for one to three nights. The proportion of mated females was between 15 to 70% lower in pheromone-treated compared to untreated vineyards. Overall, the exposure of eight couples for one night was adequate for comparing different control schemes. Small cages may therefore provide a fast and cheap method to compare the effectiveness of pheromone dispensers under standardised semi-field conditions and may help predict the value of setting-up large-scale field trials.
Investigations on resting site preferences by the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera, Glossinidae) as a means of improving the efficacy of visual baits for tsetse population control
2016, Emmanuel Kamba Mebourou, Guerin, Patrick
RĆ©sumĆ© Les mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s sont des insectes hĆ©matophages quāon trouve en Afrique subsaharienne et dont les espĆØces sont classifiĆ©es en trois principaux groupes Ć©cologiques (riverain, savane et forĆŖt). Les mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s riveraines et de savane sont les vecteurs potentiels des trypanosomes, parasites qui causent la trypanosomiase (maladie du sommeil), Ć lāHomme et au bĆ©tail Ć travers leurs piqĆ»res au cours leur repas sanguin. La trypanosomiase est une maladie tropicale nĆ©gligĆ©e qui affecte la santĆ© humaine et cause dāimportantes pertes Ć©conomiques. La rĆ©duction de la population des mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s par lāutilisation des Ć©crans visuels imprĆ©gnĆ©s dāinsecticide (tissus bleus, noirs ou bleuānoir) reste lāun des moyens efficaces pour lutter contre la maladie. La rĆ©duction des Ć©crans visuels standards (1 m x 1 m) aux Ć©crans de petites tailles (25 cm x 25 cm) sont des moyens effaces et bon marchĆ© pour contrĆ“ler la population des mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s riveraines. Une telle rĆ©duction de taille des Ć©crans visuels est inefficace contre les tsĆ©tsĆ©s de savane. Lāobjectif principal de cette thĆØse Ć©tait de dĆ©velopper des appĆ¢ts visuels efficaces, bon marchĆ© et standardisĆ©s qui permettent de contrĆ“ler les populations des mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s. Le control et lāĆ©radication des mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s requiĆØrent une solide connaissance de leur comportement et de leur Ć©cologie. Jāai dāabord explorĆ© au laboratoire le comportement au repos de Glossina pallidipes qui est une mouche tsĆ©tsĆ© de savane (groupe Morsitans). Jāai montrĆ© que (1) le fait de trouver une perche auādessus du sol est un comportement fondamental de survie chez G. pallidipes qui est capable de voler vers des sites de repos dans l'obscuritĆ© estimĆ©e Ć 10 fois plus bas que l'illumination pendant une nuit Ć ciel couvert et (2) le choix des sites de repos diurnes par les mouches est liĆ© Ć leur rĆ©solution visuelle dĆ©terminĆ©e par leurs rĆ©ponses optomotrices et par Ć©lectrorĆ©tinographie. Ensuite, j'ai travaillĆ© suivant l'hypothĆØse que les sites de repos horizontaux des mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s (branches horizontales dans la nature) pourraient ĆŖtre des substrats d'atterrissage efficaces de ces mouches lorsqu'ils sont associĆ©s Ć des Ć©crans visuels. Le comportement en vol et l'atterrissage de G. pallidipes sur des Ć©crans visuels bidimensionnels et tridimensionnels dans une arĆØne circulaire de vol libre et dans une chambre de vol confirment que G. pallidipes sāapproche d'un objet visuel par le dessous et explore l'objet en volant autour de la partie infĆ©rieure de celuiāci. Une barre en bois de 1.5 cm de diamĆØtre recouverte d'un tissu mat noir et placĆ© horizontalement Ć la base d'un Ć©cran carrĆ© bleu (25 cm x 25 cm) augmente les atterrissages de G. pallidipes de facteur 2 sur lāĆ©cran comparĆ© Ć lāĆ©cran tout bleu dans la chambre de vol. LāĆ©cran bleu incorporant une barre noire Ć la base est prometteur dāun dispositif rentable Ć utiliser comme appĆ¢ts visuels imprĆ©gnĆ©s d'insecticide pour contrĆ“ler la population des mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s. Enfin, la question de la persistance de deltamĆ©thrine, un insecticide de la classe des pyrĆ©throĆÆdes actuellement utilisĆ© pour le contrĆ“le des tsĆ©tsĆ©s, a Ć©tĆ© traitĆ©e. L'effet de lāexposition dans les conditions naturelles (Lambwe Valley, Kenya) sur la capacitĆ© de quatre diffĆ©rents textiles contenant des proportions croissantes (0, 35, 65 et 100%) de polyester et imprĆ©gnĆ©s de deltamĆ©thrine a Ć©tĆ© Ć©valuĆ©. Ces textiles ont Ć©tĆ© saturĆ©s d'une solution aqueuse de deltamĆ©thrine Ć 1000 mg/m2 et ont Ć©tĆ© exposĆ©s au champ durant 18 mois. La toxicitĆ© sur G. pallidipes de ces textiles imprĆ©gnĆ©s de deltamĆ©thrine et exposĆ©s au champ a Ć©tĆ© Ć©valuĆ©e sur 24 heures aprĆØs 45 secondes de contact de ces textiles avec les mouches. Seuls les textiles constituĆ©s de polyester Ć 65% et 100% Ć©taient capables de tuer respectivement 47 et 67% de G. pallidipes aprĆØs 9 mois d'exposition dans les conditions naturelles. Le textile Ć 100% polyester Ć©tait encore capable de paralyser toutes les mouches aprĆØs 18 mois dāexposition au champ. La dose lĆ©tale de deltamĆ©thrine pour tuer 50% (DL50) de G. pallidipes Ć©tait estimĆ©e Ć 30 mg/m2 sur du papier buvard tandis que Le textile Ć 100% polyester conservait 17 mg/m2 aprĆØs 9 mois dāexposition au champ et causait une mortalitĆ© de 67% chez les mouches soulignant l'influence du type de matĆ©riel sur la disponibilitĆ© de lāinsecticide aux mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s. Sur la base de l'ensemble des rĆ©sultats de cette thĆØse, une perspective de recherche a Ć©tĆ© proposĆ©e pour la RĆ©publique centrafricaine qui abrite quatre foyers de trypanosomiase oĆ¹ la lutte contre les mouches tsĆ©tsĆ©s a longtemps Ć©tĆ© nĆ©gligĆ©e.
The sugar meal of the African malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae and how deterrent compounds interfere with it: a behavioural and neurophysiological study
2013, Kessler, SĆ©bastien, Vlimant, MichĆØle, Guerin, Patrick
In this study, we show that female African malaria mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae starved for 3ā5 h start to engorge on sucrose at concentrations between 50 and 75 mmol lā1. Half of the feeding response (ED50) is reached at 111 mmol lā1 and the maximum response (0.4 mg) occurs at 250 mmol lā1. Two receptor cells in a trichoid sensillum of the labellum, called the āsucroseā and āwaterā neurones, are activated by sucrose and water, respectively. The electrophysiological response of the sucrose receptor cell starts well below the level of sugar necessary to induce engorgement. The sugar receptor cell is most sensitive to small increments in sucrose concentration up to 10 mmol lā1 with a response plateau from 25 mmol lā1. Fructose has a mild phagostimulatory effect on A. gambiae, whereas no significant differences in meal sizes between water and glucose were found. However, when 146 mmol lā1 fructose plus glucose are mixed, the same engorgement as on 146 mmol lā1 sucrose is observed. Likewise, even though the sucrose receptor cell is not activated by either fructose or glucose alone, equimolar solutions of fructose plus glucose activate the neurone. We conclude that there is a behavioural and neurophysiological synergism between fructose and glucose, the two hexose sugars of sucrose. We show that some bitter-tasting products for humans have a deterrent effect on feeding in A. gambiae. When 1 mmol lā1 quinidine, quinine or denatonium benzoate is added to 146 mmol lā1 sucrose, feeding is almost totally inhibited. The effect of berberine is lower and no significant inhibition on engorgement occurs for caffeine. The deterrent effect depends on the concentration for both quinine and quinidine. Capillary feeding experiments show that contact chemosensilla on the mouthparts are sufficient for the detection of sucrose and bitter products. The feeding assay findings with deterrents correlate with the neurophysiological responses of the sucrose and water labellar neurones, which are both inhibited by the bitter compounds denatonium benzoate, quinine and berberine between 0.01 and 1 mmol lā1, but not by the same concentrations of caffeine. In conclusion, sucrose stimulates feeding and activates the labellar sucrose neurone, whereas feeding deterrents inhibit both the sucrose and water neurones. This study provides an initial understanding of the physiological mechanisms involved in sugar feeding in A. gambiae and shows how some bitter products interfere with it.
Aspects of the sensory physiology of the pollination of "Petunia axillaris" and mating in moth pests
2013, Gurba, Alexandre, Guerin, Patrick
Les composĆ©s produits par les plantes ont un impact important dans plusieurs aspects de la biologie de nombreux insectes et les plantes sont une source de nourriture particuliĆØrement importante. A lāĆ©tat adulte, les insectes utilisent ces messages chimiques pour identifier et localiser une source de nourriture qui leur convient. La spĆ©cificitĆ© de la plante est aussi cruciale pour le bon dĆ©veloppement des larves peu mobiles. Le choix du lieu de ponte est donc important pour la survie de la progĆ©niture et est Ć©galement grandement dĆ©terminĆ© par lāodeur spĆ©cifique des plantes hĆ“tes. Il a aussi Ć©tĆ© prouvĆ© que le comportement sexuel des insectes est influencĆ© par les odeurs de plante hĆ“te en augmentant la sensibilitĆ© des mĆ¢les aux phĆ©romones sexuelles.
Petunia est un genre de plante particuliĆØrement intĆ©ressant pour Ć©tudier le rĆ“le des caractĆØres floraux dans la spĆ©ciation, car toutes les espĆØces connues sont capables de se croiser artificiellement. Toutefois, lāhybridation sur le terrain reste rare. Lāisolation reproductive est alors assurĆ©e par lāattraction sĆ©lective des pollinisateurs. Il existe chez Petunia trois syndromes de pollinisation distincts correspondant Ć autant de guildes de pollinisateurs : abeilles, sphingidĆ©s ou colibris. P. axillaris attire Manduca sexta, un sphingidĆ©, en produisant une puissante odeur. En revanche, P. exserta qui est pollinisĆ© par des colibris ne relĆ¢che aucune odeur. Le croisement de ces deux espĆØces permet dāĆ©tudier la base gĆ©nĆ©tique de lāĆ©volution du parfum chez Petunia et son importance dans la prĆ©fĆ©rence de butinage de M. sexta. Nous avons caractĆ©risĆ© le parfum de P. axillaris et confirmĆ© que P. exserta ne produisait pas dāodeur. Nous avons montrĆ© que M. sexta est trĆØs sensible Ć ces composĆ©s, particuliĆØrement au methyl benzoate, benzyl alcohol et mĆ©thyl salicylate de P. axillaris. Finalement, nous avons observĆ© par le comportement en chambre de vol que les plantes produisant des odeurs Ć©taient toujours prĆ©fĆ©rĆ©es, quel que soit la couleur de la fleur. Nous en avons dĆ©duit que la production de parfum et un trait floral dĆ©terminant dans la relation plante-insecte et que ce trait peut Ć lui seul changer la prĆ©fĆ©rence de butinage de M. sexta. Les consĆ©quences de ces rĆ©sultats sur la spĆ©ciation chez Petunia sont discutĆ©es.
Chez les insectes lāattraction spĆ©cifique par certaines odeurs est en grande partie modulĆ©e par la prĆ©sence de nourriture. Nous nous sommes intĆ©ressĆ©s Ć la perception de M. sexta aux diffĆ©rents nutriments Ć©nergĆ©tiques essentiels que sont les sucres. AprĆØs avoir caractĆ©risĆ© les sensilles gustatives de son proboscis, nous avons mesurĆ© la rĆ©ponse neuronale des sensilles styloconiques et basiconiques au glucose, fructose et sucrose. Pour les deux types sensillaires, la rĆ©ponse au fructose est lĆ©gĆØrement plus intense quāau sucrose alors que celle au glucose est imperceptible Ć la dose testĆ©e. ParallĆØlement, la prĆ©fĆ©rence de nourrissage du papillon a Ć©tĆ© Ć©valuĆ©e en choix binaires. Il en dĆ©coule que les papillons prĆ©fĆØrent se nourrir de sucrose ou de fructose par rapport au glucose. De plus il parvient Ć dĆ©tecter de faible concentration de sucrose et prĆ©fĆØre se nourrir sur les solutions les plus concentrĆ©es. Finalement, il semble que le volume de solution de sucrose soit dĆ©terminĆ© par sa concentration. La prĆ©fĆ©rence comportementale pour ces sucres est bien corrĆ©lĆ©e avec leur perception neuronale.
Le ver de la grappe, Lobesia botrana, et le ver de la pomme, Cydia pomonella, sont tous deux de trĆØs importants insectes ravageurs des cultures Ć lāĆ©chelle de la planĆØte. Sans mesures de contrĆ“le adĆ©quates, les pertes financiĆØres sur les cultures peuvent ĆŖtre considĆ©rables. La confusion sexuelle est une mĆ©thode spĆ©cifique de lutte utilisant la phĆ©romone sexuelle pour attirer les mĆ¢les vers des leurres et ainsi diminuer les probabilitĆ©s dāaccouplement. Utiliser des produits de plantes hĆ“tes pour amĆ©liorer lāattraction des mĆ¢les par les phĆ©romones sexuelles prĆ©sente une possibilitĆ© intĆ©ressante. Nous avons mesurĆ© lāattraction des mĆ¢les de L. botrana Ć diffĆ©rent doses dāheptane ou dāoctane en combinaison avec une concentration sous-dosĆ©e de phĆ©romone. Alors que lāattractivitĆ© du mĆ©lange augmente avec la dose pour les deux produits, nous obtenons une proportion maximale de papillons arrivant Ć la source avec 10 ng/min dāalcane relĆ¢chĆ© avec la phĆ©romone, un niveau dāattraction comparable avec celui obtenu avec des phĆ©romones directement relĆ¢chĆ© avec des femelles. Alors que ces alcanes sont inactifs seuls, la phĆ©romone directement diluĆ© dans lāheptane induit non seulement autant de contact avec la source quāavec un solvant classique, mais recrute plus de papillons dans les premiĆØres phases dāattraction. Un autre composĆ© de plante, le 2-phĆ©nylethanol augmente Ć©galement lāattraction de la phĆ©romone lorsquāil est relĆ¢chĆ© Ć 100 pg/min. De plus, lorsque lāun de ces composĆ©s de plante est ajoutĆ© Ć la phĆ©romone, le temps que met le papillon pour atteindre la source est rĆ©duit de moitiĆ©. Tous ces rĆ©sultats sont confirmĆ©s Ć©galement chez C. pomonella. Le large spectre de concentrations oĆ¹ ces alcanes sont actifs chez ces deux espĆØces offre un outil prometteur pour amĆ©liorer le contrĆ“le des populations sur le terrain en utilisant la confusion sexuelle.
Au travers de cette thĆØse, nous avons Ć©tudiĆ© les interactions plantes-insectes sous plusieurs facettes. Nous avons montrĆ© comment une plante arrive Ć manipuler un pollinisateur pour parvenir Ć se reproduire, ou comment un papillon utilise les stimuli chimiques dāune plante pour se nourrir. Nous avons Ć©galement dĆ©montrĆ© que certaines odeurs de plantes amĆ©lioraient les chances des papillons mĆ¢les Ć trouver une femelle., Compounds produced by plants have an important impact on many aspects of the biology of insects from whom plants are a particularly important source of food. As an adult, insects use chemical messages to identify and locate a suitable food source. The specificity of the host plant relationship is also crucial for healthy development of larvae. The choice of oviposition site is determinant for the survival of offsprings and is largely selected by the specific array of host plants stimuli. It has also been shown that the sexual behaviour of insects is influenced by host plant odours by increasing the sensitivity of males to sex pheromones of females.
The genus Petunia is particularly interesting to study the role of floral traits in speciation because all the known species are artificially crossable. However, hybridization in the field is rare as the reproductive isolation is provided by the selective attraction of pollinators. Three distinct pollination syndromes have emerged in Petunia, corresponding to as many guilds of pollinators: bees, hummingbirds or hawkmoths. P. axillaris attracts hawkmoths such as Manduca sexta, a Sphingidae, by releasing a strong sweet odour. In contrast, P. exserta which is pollinated by hummingbirds is devoid of scent. Crossings between these two species were exploited here to study the genetic basis of the evolution of fragrance in Petunia and its importance in foraging preferences of M. sexta. We characterized the scent of P. axillaris and confirmed that P. exserta produces no odour. We show that the antennal olfactory receptor cells of M. sexta is very sensitive to the compounds released by P. axillaris, especially methyl benzoate, benzyl alcohol and methyl salicylate. Finally, we observed through choice tests in a wind tunnel that plants producing odours were always preferred, regardless of the colour of the flower. We conclude that the production of fragrance is an important floral trait in this plant-insect relationship and that this feature alone can modify the foraging preference of M. sexta. The implications of these findings on speciation processes in Petunia are discussed.
In insects specific attraction by odours is largely modulated by the presence of food. We were interested in the perception of different essential energy nutrients including nectar sugars by M. sexta. We have characterized the taste sensilla on the proboscis and measured the neural response of the gustatory receptor cells of styloconic and basiconic sensilla to glucose, fructose and sucrose. For both sensillar types, the response to fructose is slightly stronger than to sucrose while glucose was not detected at the dose tested. Meanwhile, the feeding preference of the moth was assessed through binary choices experiments. It turns out that the M. sexta prefers to feed on sucrose or fructose compared to glucose. In addition, it can detect low concentrations of sucrose and prefers to feed on the most concentrated solutions. Finally, it seems that the volume of sucrose solution imbibed is determined by its concentration. Behavioural preferences by M. sexta for these sugars correlate well with their mouthpart sensory cell responses.
The European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana, and the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, are both very important worldwide insect pests. Without adequate control, fruit damage can be important and the arising financial losses substantial. Mating disruption is a specific control method using the female sex pheromone to attract males to lures and thus reduce their chances of mating. The use of host plant volatiles to improve the attractiveness of males to sex pheromones presents an interesting possibility to improve the mating disruption control method. We measured the attraction of male L. botrana to different doses of heptane and octane in combination with the underdosed sex pheromone. While the attractiveness of the mixture increases with dose for both products, a maximum number of males arrive at the source with a release rate of 10 ng/min of the alkanes released with the pheromone. This level of attraction is comparable with that obtained with the sex pheromones released directly from calling females. While the alkanes are inactive on their own, the pheromone diluted directly in heptane induces not only contact to the source no different to the control, but recruits more moths in the early stages of flight. Another plant compound, 2-phenylethanol also increases the attraction of the underdosed L. botrana sex pheromone to males when released at 100 pg/min. In addition, when one of these plant compounds is added to the pheromone, the time needed to reach the source is halved in L. botrana. The findings with these plant compounds were confirmed in C. pomonella. The wide range of concentrations over which these alkanes are active in both species provides a promising mean to improve control of field populations using mating disruption.
Throughout this thesis we studied plant-insect interactions from different angles. We have shown how a plant can manipulate a pollinator to achieve pollination, alternatively, how a moth selects plant stimuli to cover its energy needs. We have also shown that hitherto unstudied plant volatiles improved the chances of male moths to encounter females.
Quinine and artesunate inhibit feeding in the African malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae: the role of gustatory organs within the mouthparts
2014, Kessler, SĆ©bastien, GonzĆ”lez, Julia, Vlimant, MichĆØle, Glauser, GaĆ©tan, Guerin, Patrick
A membrane feeding assay in which the effects of the antimalarial drugs quinine and artesunate are tested on Anopheles gambiae Giles sensu stricto is described. In the present study, 87% of female A. gambiae are shown to feed on whole defibrinated bovine blood alone, whereas only 47% and 43.5% feed on saline and on salineā+ābovine serum albumin (BSA) solutions, respectively, suggesting that additional components in the blood stimulate mosquito feeding. The addition of 1āmm quinine or artesunate to the BSA solution results in a significant reduction in percentage engorgement to 16.2% and 14.1%, respectively. However, the feeding rate is higher when 1āmm artesunate and quinine are mixed in the blood because 67.8% and 78.4% of females engorge on these solutions respectively. Artesunate (10āmm) in the blood reduces percentage engorgement to 20%. Because circulating doses of quinine and artesunate affecting Plasmodium in humans are much lower than those affecting feeding by A. gambiae in the in vitro assay, these two antimalarial drugs should have no effect, or only a minor effect, on the infection rate of mosquitoes feeding on treated patients. Because only the stylets penetrate the membrane and not the labellar lobes, the results of the present study suggest that both blood phagostimulants and feeding deterrents are detected by internal gustatory organs in A. gambiae, namely sensory cells in the apical and subapical labral pegs, in sensilla on the inner face of the labellar lobes, or by cibarial receptor cells. The neuroanatomy of gustatory sensilla on the apical and subapical labral pegs and on the inner face of the labellar lobes of female A. gambiae is described in the present study.
A standardised in vivo and in vitro test method for evaluating tick repellents
2013, Krƶber, Thomas, Bourquin, Martine, Guerin, Patrick
The threat of transmission of Lyme borelliosis and tick-borne encephalitis by ixodid ticks has resulted in an increasing number of tick repellents coming onto the market. To allow proper evaluation of the efficacy of different types of compounds and their formulations, there is a need for standardised methods for testing ticks repellents. Ticks show a marked negative geotactic response following contact with a potential host, i.e., they climb up in order to locate attachment and feeding sites, whereas exposing ticks to repellents induces positive geotaxis, i.e., ticks walk downwards or drop off the treated host or substrate. We describe here complementary tests that employ these geotactic responses to evaluate repellents: one in vitro on a warm glass plate and the other on the lower human leg (shin). The compounds tested were DEET, EBAAP, icaridin, capric acid, lauric acid, geraniol, citriodiol, citronella essential oil and lavender essential oil, all non-proprietary ingredients of widely distributed tick repellent formulations.
In controls on both the warm glass plate and the human leg, the majority of Ixodes ricinus nymphs walk upwards. By contrast, in both the in vitro and in vivo tests, effective doses of repellents cause ticks to either walk downwards or fall off the substrates, termed here āaffected ticksā. The ED75 values for affected ticks on the human leg indicate that the test products can be divided into three groups: (1) icaridin, EBAAP, DEET and capric acid with values between 0.013 and 0.020 mg/cm2, (2) citriodiol and lauric acid with values between 0.035 and 0.058 mg/cm2, and (3) geraniol, citronella oil and lavender essential oil with values between 0.131 and 1.58 mg/cm2. The latter three products can be considered as less effective repellents. The tests on the warm glass plate resulted in very similar efficacy rankings for the products tested in vivo, and the ticksā behavioural responses also corresponded closely to those observed on the treated human leg. The ED75 values on the glass plate ranged from half to one sixth needed on the leg. The warm glass plate test thus provides a reliable alternative to human subjects for an initial evaluation of new repellents, and is particularly appropriate for testing products with still to be determined human toxicity and dermatological effects.
Standardizing Visual Control Devices for Tsetse Flies: West African Species Glossina tachinoides, G. palpalis gambiensis and G. morsitans submorsitans
2012, Rayaisse, Jean-Baptiste, Krƶber, Thomas, McMullin, Andrew, Solano, Philippe, Mihok, Steve, Guerin, Patrick
Here we describe field trials designed to standardize tools for the control of Glossina tachinoides, G. palpalis gambiensis and G. morsitans submorsitans submorsitans in West Africa based on existing trap/target/bait technology. Blue and black biconical and monoconical traps and 1 m2 targets were made in either phthalogen blue cotton, phthalogen blue cotton/polyester or turquoise blue polyester/viscose (all with a peak reflectance between 450ā480 nm) and a black polyester. Because targets were covered in adhesive film, they proved to be significantly better trapping devices than either of the two trap types for all three species (up to 14 times more for Glossina tachinoides, 10 times more for G. palpalis gambiensis, and 6.5 times for G. morsitans submorsitans). The relative performance of the devices in the three blue cloths tested was the same when unbaited or baited with a mixture of phenols, 1-octen-3-ol and acetone. Since insecticide-impregnated devices act via contact with flies, we enumerated which device (traps or targets) served as the best object for flies to land on by also covering the cloth parts of traps with adhesive film. Despite the fact that the biconical trap proved to be the best landing device for the three species, the difference over the target (20ā30%) was not significant. This experiment also allowed an estimation of trap efficiency, i.e. the proportion of flies landing on a trap that are caught in its cage. A low overall efficiency of the biconical or monoconical traps of between 11ā24% was recorded for all three species. These results show that targets can be used as practical devices for population suppression of the three species studied. Biconical traps can be used for population monitoring, but a correction factor of 5ā10 fold needs to be applied to captures to compensate for the poor trapping efficiency of this device for the three species.