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Metaphors of development and the development of metaphors
Development is a core theoretical issue for psychology. Yet, the root metaphors that guide theory and research on development have rarely been questioned, and the limitations and blind spots of these metaphors have not been made explicit. In this article, we propose an exercise in theoretical imagination. We start by reviewing the metaphors commonly used in developmental psychology. We then develop four alternative metaphors that, despite being present in the general semiosphere, have not received much theoretical attention. In order to evaluate these metaphors, we introduce a case study of the development evident in a woman’s diary. On this basis, we invite psychologists to examine new metaphors and thus expand the horizon of possible theorizing.
Imagining the collective future: A sociocultural perspective
The present chapter examines how groups imagine their future from a sociocultural perspective. First, we present our sociocultural model of imagination and its three dimensions, before building on it to account for how collectives imagine the future. We maintain that it is a mistake to assume that because imagination is “not real”, it cannot have “real” consequences. Imagination about the future, we argue, is a central steering mechanism of individual and collective behaviour. Imagination about the future is often political precisely because it can have huge significance for the activities of a group or even a nation. Accordingly, we introduce a new dimension for thinking about collective imagination of the future— namely, the degree of centralization of imagining—and with it, identify a related aspect, its emotional valence. Based on two examples, we argue that collective imaginings have their own developmental trajectories as they move in time through particular social and political contexts. Consequently, we suggest that a sociocultural psychology of collective imagination of the future should not only document instances of collective imagining, but also account for these developmental trajectories— specifically, what social and political forces hinder and promote particular imaginings.
Imagination: Creating alternatives in everyday life
In this chapter, we present an integrative sociocultural model of imagination. From this perspective, imagination can be seen as a psychological process of temporary “uncoupling” from the ongoing, here-and-now, socially shared world. Although imagination is often private, it is deeply social and cultural in its nature, content, and outcomes. We will first identify some of the conditions which lead the mind disengage from the immediacy of action and become absorbed in reverie. These conditions include when the socially shared world becomes dull (leading to boredom), when there is anxiety about the future, and when the social world becomes overwhelming, for example, with major uncertainty. We then examine imagination as a psychological process. We show how it is nourished with a wide range of social and personal experiences, images, representations, which becomes the “stuff” that populates imagination. Finally, we examine the outcomes of imagination: eventually, as the person “recouples” with the ongoing socially shared reality, the outcomes of the imagination feed into understanding and action, potentially informing the trajectory of individuals or groups. In some cases, imagination can lead to surprising and unpredictable outcomes, which may be acknowledged or rejected by society, and thus, we argue, imagination feeds into creativity and even innovation. We highlight these dynamics and their variation along a series of analytical dimensions which conceptualize a wide range of phenomena; doing so leads us to distinguish imagination and creativity and also show the benefits of linking these two concepts together.
Internalization: How culture becomes mind
Internalization, the process by which culture becomes mind, is a core concept in cultural psychology. However, since the 1990s it has also been the source of debate. Critiques have focused on the underlying metaphor of internal-external as problematic. It has been proposed that appropriation provides a better conceptualization, a term that focuses attention more on behavior and less on psychological processes. The present article reviews the debate and introduces the recent concepts of position exchange and symbolic resources. Position exchange focuses on the societal side of culture, on the way in which social situations shape people’s experiences. Symbolic resources focus on culture in terms of specific elements, such as books, films, and so on, which also shape people’s experiences. The key idea common to both position exchange and symbolic resources is that people move through culture, both physically and psychologically. Moving through culture shapes a series of experiences across the lifecourse, and these experiences “layer up” within individuals, forming a complex sedimentation of culture within individuals. In so far as culture is heterogeneous and fragmented, so the sedimented layers of experience will also be heterogeneous and fragmented, thus creating the tensions that underlie the dynamics of mind.
Difficult differences: a socio-cultural analysis of how diversity can enable and inhibit creativity
The relationship between diversity and creativity can be seen as paradoxical. A diversity of perspectives should be advantageous for collaborative creativity, yet its benefits are often offset by adverse social processes. One suggestion for overcoming these negative effects is perspective taking. We compared four dyads with low scores on trait perspective taking with four dyads who were high on trait perspective taking on a brainstorming task followed by reconstructive interviews. Trait‐based perspective taking was strongly associated with greater creativity. However, contrary with expectation, interactional perspective taking behaviors (including questioning, signaling understanding, repairing) were associated with lesser creativity. The dyads that generated the fewest ideas were most likely to get stuck within ideational domains, struggling to understand one‐another, having to elaborate and justify their ideas more. In contrast, the dyads that generated many ideas were more likely to recognize each other's ideas as valuable without extensive justification or negotiation. We suggest that perspective taking is crucially important for mediating diversity in the generation of new ideas not only because it enables understanding the perspective of the other, but because it entails an atmosphere of tolerance, playfulness, and mutual recognition.
Difficult differences: A socio-cultural analysis of how diversity can nable and inhibit creativity
The relationship between diversity and creativity can be seen as paradoxical. A diversity of perspectives should be advantageous for collaborative creativity, yet its benefits are often offset by adverse social processes. One suggestion for overcoming these negative effects is perspective taking. We compared four dyads with low scores on trait perspective taking with four dyads who were high on trait perspective taking on a brainstorming task followed by reconstructive interviews. Trait-based perspective taking was strongly associated with greater creativity. However, contrary with expectation, interactional perspective taking behaviors (including questioning, signaling understanding, repairing) were associated with lesser creativity. The dyads that generated the fewest ideas were most likely to get stuck within ideational domains, struggling to understand one-another, having to elaborate and justify their ideas more. In contrast, the dyads that generated many ideas were more likely to recognize each other’s ideas as valuable without extensive justification or negotiation. We suggest that perspective taking is crucially important for mediating diversity in the generation of new ideas not only because it enables understanding the perspective of the other, but because it entails an atmosphere of tolerance, playfulness, and mutual recognition.
The gift of a rock : a case study in the emergence and dissolution of meaning
How does meaning arise? How can something without meaning become intensely meaningful? We advance a social theory of meaning, exploring how things come to have symbolic significance for humans. Drawing upon the work of Peirce and Mead we argue for a triadic and temporal conception of meaning, in which meaning originates with the response of others, and develops through the introduction of new significant others in associated contexts. In order to illustrate this theoretical approach we examine a case of the emergence and dissolution of the meaning of some Chilean rocks. The Chilean President, Sebastian Piñera, toured Europe in late 2010 bringing gifts of rocks to European political leaders and monarchs. These rocks were taken from the mine where thirty-three miners were trapped for over two months. Before the accident and rescue these rocks were worthless rubble. After the event, they became gifts suitable for world leaders. Our analysis examines how this hitherto unimagined potential meaning of otherwise worthless rocks came into being, and then dissipated back into nothingness.
Reproducibility in psychology: Theoretical distinction of different types of replications
Debates about replication in psychology have focused on methodological issues and how to strengthen the replication culture. In most cases, these discussions have tended to assume that the phenomena being investigated are universal. In this paper, we are going to propose a theoretical distinction of different types of replication. The distinction is based on the assumption that besides of universal psychological phenomena there are also phenomena, especially in social and cultural psychology, that are expected to vary between socio-cultural contexts and across history. Taking this insight to its logical conclusion it implies that the main purpose of a replication and interpretation of its results depends on the phenomenon being studied. In the case of the universal phenomena, the replication serves to validation purpose, while in the case of the socio-cultural phenomenon it serves to advance our theoretical understanding of how the given phenomenon is formatted by the socio-cultural-historical context
Imagination in Human and Cultural Development
This book positions imagination as a central concept which increases the understanding of daily life, personal life choices, and the way in which culture and society changes. Case studies from micro instances of reverie and daydreaming, to utopian projects, are included and analysed. The theoretical focus is on imagination as a force free from immediate constraints, forming the basis of our individual and collective agency. In each chapter, the authors review and integrate a wide range of classic and contemporary literature culminating in the proposal of a sociocultural model of imagination. The book takes into account the triggers of imagination, the content of imagination, and the outcomes of imagination. At the heart of the model is the interplay between the individual and culture; an exploration of how the imagination, as something very personal and subjective, grows out of our shared culture, and how our shared culture can be transformed by acts of imagination. Imagination in Human and Cultural Development offers new perspectives on the study of psychological learning, change, innovation and creativity throughout the lifespan. The book will appeal to academics and scholars in the fields of psychology and the social sciences, especially those with an interest in development, social change, cultural psychology, imagination and creativity.